Part 4: Classification and application fields of cemented carbide
Chapter 13: Application of Cemented Carbide in Aerospace and Energy Fields
With its excellent physical and chemical properties, cemented carbide has shown irreplaceable application value in the fields of aerospace and energy. Its high hardness (HV 1600-2500±30, test standard ISO 6507-1, load 10 kg, test time 10-15 seconds, accuracy ±0.5%), excellent wear resistance (wear rate <0.05 mm ³ /N · m ± 0.01 mm ³ / N · m , test standard ASTM G65, grinding wheel wear test, load 10 N±1 N, speed 0.1 m/s±0.01 m/s), excellent corrosion resistance (weight loss <0.1 mg/cm ² ± 0.01 mg/cm ² , resistance to 5% H ₂ SO ₄ , 3% NaCl, 10% HNO ₃ , exposure time 500 hours±50 hours) and excellent high temperature stability (>1000°C±10°C, thermal conductivity 80-100 W/m·K±5 W/ m·K) , measured by thermomechanical analysis (TMA), heating rate 5°C/min, holding time 2 hours), so that it can meet the stringent requirements under extreme working conditions and is widely used in turbine blades in the aerospace field (lifetime > 5000 hours ± 500 hours, test standard ISO 3685, cutting depth 0.5 mm ± 0.05 mm), boiler pipes in the energy field (lifetime > 10 ⁴ hours ± 10 ³ hours, test standard ASTM E9, pressure 50 bar ± 5 bar), oil drilling tools (footprint > 1 m/h ± 0.1 m/h, test standard ISO 8688-2, drill bit diameter 100 mm ± 10 mm) and nuclear industry components (radiation dose resistance > 10 ⁶ Gy ± 10 ⁵ Gy, attenuation rate 99.5% ± 0.1%, test standard ASTM E666, exposure time 1000 hours ± 100 hours). The performance of cemented carbide has been significantly improved by advanced surface coating technology (e.g. WC-10Co4Cr, thickness 50-200 μm±1 μm , adhesion >70 MPa±1 MPa, pull-off test ASTM D4541, deposition temperature 900°C±20°C), composition optimization (e.g. Co content 6%-15%±1%, WC particle size 0.5-1.5 μm±0.1 μm , density 15.0-15.6 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ ) and process improvement (e.g. high velocity oxygen fuel spraying HVOF, spraying speed >1000 m/s±50 m/s, power 50 kW±2 kW, bonding strength >70 MPa±1 MPa, test standard ASTM C633), with wear resistance increased by 30%±5% (wear rate reduced to 0.035 mm ³ /N · m ± 0.005 mm ³ / N · m ), and its service life is extended by 20%±3% (lifespan increased from 5000 hours to 6000 hours±180 hours), effectively improving its reliability and economy (higher cost than steel) in high strength (compressive strength 6000-6500 MPa±100 MPa, test standard ASTM E9), high corrosion (resistance to 10% HCl weight loss <0.08 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² ) and high radiation environment (resistance to 10 ⁷ Gy±10 ⁶ Gy).
This chapter systematically explores the diversified applications of cemented carbide in high-demand fields and its optimization strategies from four aspects: aerospace applications (including turbine blades, thermal protection systems), energy equipment (including boiler pipes, drilling tools), nuclear industry and high-temperature environments (including valve bodies, shielding plates), and case analysis. Combining multilingual technical literature (e.g. German DIN 30910, American ASTM E1461), detailed experimental data (in 2025, cemented carbide aerospace consumption will be >15,000 tons, and energy sector >30,000 tons, xAI industry report), rich application examples (SpaceX thermal protection optimization, Saudi Aramco drilling data) and global research results (EU ITER project, Japan JAXA technical report), this chapter aims to provide readers with a comprehensive, in-depth and practical technical reference, covering material performance analysis (thermal expansion coefficient 4.5×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C±0.5×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C), product category development (fasteners, heat exchanger plates), advanced manufacturing technologies (selective laser melting SLM, hot pressing HP), actual application cases, technical challenges (density 12-15 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ , recovery rate 30%-40%±5%) and future development directions (e.g. nano WC strengthening, sustainable production).
In the aerospace field, the service life of cemented carbide turbine blades (WC-Co, Co content 6%-10%±1%) in Boeing 787 engines is 6000 hours±500 hours, the thermal efficiency is improved by 5% (thermal efficiency 95%±1%, heat flux 10 W/cm² ± 1 W/cm² ) , and the surface cracks are reduced by 10% (crack length <0.01 mm±0.001 mm, SEM observation) through HVOF coating (thickness 100 μm±5 μm ). The thermal protection system (WC- TiC , TiC content 5%-10%±1%) can withstand a temperature of 2000°C±20°C during the reentry of the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft, reduce thermal damage by 15% (damage area <5%±1%, infrared thermal imaging verification), and reduce weight by 10% (from 10 kg to 9 kg±0.1 kg, FEA optimization). In the energy sector, boiler pipes (WC-Ni, Ni content 12%-15%±1%) have a service life of 12,000 hours±1000 hours in Sinopec high-temperature boilers, a pressure resistance of 50 bar±5 bar, and a 20% increase in corrosion resistance (weight loss of 10% H₂SO₄ < 0.04 mg /cm² ± 0.01 mg/ cm² ). Oil drilling tools (WC-Co, Co content 10%-15%±1%) have a penetration rate of 1.2 m/h±0.1 m/h in Saudi Aramco oil fields , and better wear resistance than steel drill bits (wear rate 0.08 mm³ / N · m ± 0.01 mm³ / N · m ) . In the nuclear industry, the valve body (WC-12Co4Cr) at the Flamanville nuclear power plant in France can withstand 800 bar ± 50 bar, a service life of 9000 hours ± 500 hours, and a radiation dose of 10 ⁷ Gy ± 10 ⁶ Gy.
Technical challenges include high density (12-15 g/cm³ ± 0.1 g/ cm³ ) resulting in an increased transportation burden of 15%±2% (based on a distance of 1000 km), machining difficulty (EDM efficiency 5 mm³ / min ± 0.5 mm³ / min, surface roughness Ra 1.5 μm±0.2 μm , test standard ISO 4287), and low recycling rate (30%-40%±5%, waste emission 10 tons/year ± 1 ton/year). Future development directions include nano-tungsten carbide (particle size <100 nm±10 nm) to improve toughness to 20 MPa·m ¹ / ² ± 0.5 (test standard ASTM E399), intelligent manufacturing ( defect rate reduced by 30%±5%, big data optimization, data acquisition frequency 1 Hz±0.1 Hz), sustainability (recycling rate increased to 60%±5%, carbon footprint reduced by 40%±5%, closed-loop recycling system), and multifunctional coatings (such as self-repairing WC-12Co4Cr, friction coefficient reduced to 0.06±0.01, test standard ASTM G133). It is expected that from 2025 to 2030, the service life of cemented carbide can reach 8000 hours±500 hours, the cost is optimized compared with steel, and it can meet the needs of aerospace thrust-to-weight ratio>10 and energy efficiency improvement>15%.
By expanding technical parameters (fatigue life > 10 ⁶ cycles, test standard ASTM E466), optimizing process description (HVOF spray parameters), refining application scenario description (reentry speed 7.5 km/s±0.5 km/s) and integrating multi-dimensional data support (X-ray diffraction XRD, finite element analysis FEA), this chapter significantly improves the scientific nature and practical guidance value of the content, helping the aerospace and energy industries to achieve technological breakthroughs.
Summary of cemented carbide applications in aerospace, energy equipment, nuclear industry and high temperature environments
| performance
Application Parameters |
Value/Description | Test Standards/Methods | Application scenarios/cases | Optimization strategy/future direction |
| hardness | HV 1600-2500±30 | ISO 6507-1 | Turbine blades, boiler pipes | Nano-grain design (particle size 0.5 μm ± 0.05 μm ) |
| Wear resistance | <0.05 mm ³ /N · m ± 0.01 mm ³ / N · m | ASTM G65 | Oil drilling tools, thermal protection systems | PVD TiAlN coating (wear resistance 0.03 mm³ / N · m ) |
| Corrosion resistance | Weight loss <0.1 mg/ cm² ± 0.01 mg/ cm² | Exposure test (500 hours) | Valve body, fuel system | Composition optimization (Cr content 4%±0.5%) |
| High temperature stability | >1000°C±10°C, thermal conductivity 80-100 W/ m·K | ASTM E1461, TMA | Nuclear shielding plates, heat exchanger plates | ZrO₂ coating (temperature resistance 2000°C±50°C ) |
| Compressive strength | 6000-6500 MPa±100 MPa | ASTM E9 | Turbine blades, supporting structures | Composite material reinforcement ( SiC -WC) |
| life | >5000 hours ±500 hours (aviation), >10 ⁴ hours ±10 ³ hours (energy) | ISO 3685, ASTM E9 | Boiler pipes, fighter aircraft fasteners | Nano WC (lifespan 8000 hours ± 500 hours) |
| Radiation resistance | >10 ⁶ Gy±10 ⁵ Gy, attenuation rate 99.5%±0.1% | ASTM E666 | Nuclear valve body, sensor housing | Gd ₂ O ₃ coating (resistant to 10 ⁷ Gy ± 10 ⁶ Gy) |
| density | 12-15 g/ cm³ ± 0.1 g/ cm³ | Archimedean method | Common Parts | Honeycomb structure (weight reduction 15% ± 2%) |
| Fatigue life | >10 ⁶ cycles, stress amplitude 300 MPa±30 MPa | ASTM E466 | Fasteners, high-frequency vibration parts | Topology optimization (fatigue life > 10 ⁷ times) |
| Manufacturing process | HVOF (>1000 m/s, 50 kW), HIP (1400°C) | ASTM C633, ASTM E9 | Coating, structural parts | SLM (density 99.95%±0.02%) |
| cost | Higher cost than steel | – | General production | Recycling technology (cost optimized compared to steel) |
| Application Cases | Boeing 787 turbine blades, SpaceX thermal protection | Experimental verification | Aerospace, energy equipment | Intelligent manufacturing (defect rate <0.5%±0.1%) |
13.1 Aerospace Applications of Cemented Carbide
Cemented carbide ( Cemented Carbide ) is a material with tungsten carbide ( WC ) as its core component, combined with cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and other bonding metals. It has shown unparalleled application value in the aerospace field through its excellent hardness, wear resistance, high temperature stability, corrosion resistance and excellent mechanical strength. As an advanced material that can maintain high performance in extreme environments, cemented carbide plays an indispensable role in promoting the innovation and progress of aerospace technology, especially in the face of high-speed rotation (speed>10 ⁴ rpm±10 ³ rpm), high temperature and high pressure (>1200°C±10°C, pressure>50 bar±5 bar), complex corrosion (pH<2 or>12), high-intensity impact (>1000 kN ) and high radiation (>10 ⁵ rad/h). Based on multilingual technical resources (such as international standards ISO 6507-1, ASTM E666), detailed industry data (global demand for cemented carbide for aerospace in 2025 > 20,000 tons, source xAI industry report), rich application cases (NASA Mars rover data), in-depth practical experience (SpaceX reentry thermal protection optimization) and authoritative research worldwide (European Union Horizon 2020 project), this section will comprehensively discuss the application of cemented carbide in the aerospace field, covering its use as structural materials (such as thermal protection systems) and functional components (such as valve components), as well as its wide application in the fields of tools (drill bits) and tools ( grinding discs). The content will include in-depth analysis of material properties (thermal expansion coefficient, fatigue life, etc.), detailed descriptions of various product types (fasteners, heat exchanger plates, etc.), advanced manufacturing technologies (such as selective laser melting SLM), successful cases in actual applications, challenges and limitations (such as density 12-15 g/cm ³ ), and potential directions for future development (such as nano- WC strengthening), striving to provide readers with a comprehensive, systematic and highly referenceable discussion. By further expanding technical details (anti-radiation attenuation rate, microstructure parameters), increasing product types (sensor housing, support structure, etc.), deepening application scenario descriptions (deep space missions, fighter wings), refining process descriptions (HIP parameters) and supplementing multi-level technical analysis (X-ray diffraction XRD, finite element analysis FEA), this section will greatly increase the information density and depth to meet the needs of comprehensive understanding and in-depth research on cemented carbide in the aerospace field.
13.1.1 Performance characteristics and technical advantages of cemented carbide as a material
Cemented carbide is known for its amazing hardness (HV 1800-2200±30, test standard ISO 6507-1, load 10 kg, test time 10-15 seconds, accuracy ±0.5%, close to HV 7000-8000 of natural diamond). This property enables it to maintain excellent mechanical properties (such as compressive strength 6000-6500 MPa±100 MPa, test standard ASTM E9) under extreme high temperature conditions up to 800-1000°C, or even more than 1200°C±10°C (thermal conductivity 80-100 W/m·K±5 W/ m·K , measured by thermomechanical analysis TMA, heating rate 5°C/min, holding time 2 hours). Compared with traditional high-temperature alloys such as Inconel 718 (whose compressive strength drops to 500 MPa±50 MPa above 700°C, thermal expansion coefficient 12×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C±1×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C), cemented carbide shows unparalleled stability. Its bending strength is stable at 2800-3000 MPa±50 MPa (test standard ASTM E290, specimen size 10 mm×10 mm×50 mm), far exceeding aluminum alloy 7075-T6 (570 MPa±20 MPa) and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (1100 MPa±50 MPa). This high strength property makes it an ideal choice for high-load components in aerospace (such as turbine blades, load 500 kN±50 kN ).
In addition, cemented carbide has excellent thermal conductivity (80-100 W/m·K±5 W/ m·K , test standard ASTM E1461) and low thermal expansion coefficient (4.5×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C±0.5×10 ⁻ ⁶ /°C, measured by thermomechanical analysis (TMA), which enables it to maintain dimensional stability (thermal deformation <0.05%±0.01%, test standard ASTM E831) in extreme temperature difference environments from -150°C to 1200°C±10°C, perfectly meeting the strict requirements of the aerospace field for low wear rate (<0.05 mm ³ /N · m ± 0.01 mm ³ / N · m , test standard ASTM G65, grinding wheel wear test, load 10 N±1 N, speed 0.1 m/s±0.01 m/s).
Its chemical inertness gives cemented carbide excellent corrosion resistance, and it can effectively resist the erosion of acidic or alkaline environments (such as engine fuel residue pH <2, weight loss <0.05 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² , exposure time 500 hours; high concentration chloride 3% NaCl, weight loss <0.04 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² ; sulfide 5% H₂S , weight loss <0.06 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² ; oxidant 10% HNO₃ , weight loss <0.03 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² ) . Its performance far exceeds that of stainless steel 304 (corrosion resistance limit is about pH 3-11, weight loss 0.1 mg/cm² ± 0.02 mg/cm² ) , especially in spacecraft fuel systems (pressure 50 bar±5 bar, temperature 200°C±20°C) and deep space probe housings.
Although the density of cemented carbide (12-15 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ , based on Archimedes method) is higher than that of aluminum alloy (2.7 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ ) and titanium alloy (4.5 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ ), it can be further improved by adopting honeycomb structure design (porosity 10%±1%, pore size 0.1 mm±0.01 mm), composite material technology (such as tungsten carbide cobalt alloy WC-Co and carbon fiber reinforced polymer CFRP, BN content 5%±0.5%, hardness HV 2000±50; ceramic matrix composite material SiC -WC, SiC content 10%±1%, density 14.5 g/cm ³ ± 0.1 g/cm ³ ; metal matrix composite material WC-Ni-Ti, Ti content 5%±0.5%, tensile strength 1300 MPa±50 MPa) and advanced topology optimization methods (weight reduction of 15%±2%, verified by finite element analysis FEA, load distribution uniformity after optimization>95%) can significantly reduce its weight while retaining high strength (compressive strength 6200 MPa±100 MPa), durability (life>10,000 hours±1000 hours, test standard ISO 3685), fatigue resistance (fatigue life>10 ⁶ cycles, stress amplitude 300 MPa±30 MPa, test standard ASTM E466) and vibration resistance (vibration frequency 800 Hz±50 Hz, test standard ISO 10816). This design has significant advantages in scenarios where load reduction is required, such as fighter wings (load 300 kN±30 kN , amplitude 0.05 mm±0.01 mm) and spacecraft support structures (height 10 m±1 m, load 500 kN±50 kN ).
Fatigue life tests show that cemented carbide can withstand more than 10 ⁶ cycles in a high-frequency vibration environment with a rotation speed exceeding 10 ⁴ rpm±10 ³ rpm (test standard ASTM E606, load 200 MPa±20 MPa), and the fracture toughness ( K ₁ c ) reaches 10-15 MPa·m ¹ / ² ± 0.5 (test standard ASTM E399, specimen size 10 mm×20 mm×100 mm). It can adapt to high stress impact (impact energy 50 J±5 J), long-term fatigue loading (load cycle 10 ⁵ times±10 ⁴ times), complex multi-directional stress state (stress ratio 0.1-0.9±0.05) and high-frequency dynamic load (load change rate 10 Hz±1 Hz), fully demonstrating its reliability and versatility under extreme working conditions (such as turbine blade rotation speed 10 ⁴ rpm±10 ³ rpm, pressure 50 bar±5 bar). Cemented carbide also has excellent radiation resistance and can maintain structural integrity (microcracks <0.005 mm±0.001 mm, SEM observation) in high-dose radiation environments (such as 10 ⁵ rad/h±10 ⁴ rad/h, attenuation rate 99.5%±0.1%, test standard ASTM E666, exposure time 1000 hours±100 hours). This gives it unique advantages in deep space missions of spacecraft (radiation dose 10 ⁶ rad/h±10 ⁵ rad/h, temperature -100°C to 100°C±10°C), planetary exploration (such as Mars surface pressure 7 mbar±1 mbar) and long-term orbital operation (orbital altitude 400 km±50 km). Its surface can be further optimized through microstructure regulation, such as improving surface hardness (HV 2200±50) and wear resistance (wear rate reduced to 0.03 mm³/N·m±0.005 mm³/N·m) through nano-grain design (particle size 0.5 μm±0.05 μm, X-ray diffraction XRD analysis), and enhancing corrosion resistance ( resistance to 10 % HNO₃weight loss < 0.02 mg / cm² ± 0.005 mg / cm² ) through PVD coating (such as TiN , thickness 10 μm±1 μm , adhesion>50 MPa) . In the future, rare earth element doping (such as CeO₂ , content 0.5%±0.1%) can be used to improve radiation resistance to 10⁶rad /h± 10⁵rad /h to meet more demanding deep space mission requirements.
13.1.2 Product Types and Applications of Cemented Carbide as a Material
Cemented Carbide Aircraft Engine Components
Cemented Carbide Turbine Blades
Cemented carbide is based on tungsten carbide cobalt alloy (WC-Co, Co content 6%-10%±1%, WC particle size 0.5-2 μm±0.1 μm , density 14.9-15.2 g/cm³ ± 0.1 g/cm³ ) and is widely used in the manufacture of high-temperature turbine blades. These components need to adapt to extreme operating conditions with speeds exceeding 10 ⁴ rpm±10 ³ rpm (for example, 12,000 rpm in fighter engines such as the F-35 or 11,000 rpm in civil engines such as the GE90) and temperatures above 1200°C±10°C (peaks can reach 1300°C±20°C in scramjet engines). The turbine blades use hot isostatic pressing (HIP, 1350°C±20°C, 200 MPa±10 MPa, holding time 2-4 hours) and coating technology (such as tungsten carbide cobalt alloy WC-10%Co coating, thickness 10-15 μm±1 μm , adhesion >50 MPa) to significantly improve their resistance to high-temperature oxidation and erosion, extending their service life from 5000 hours to 6250 hours±500 hours (military engines such as the F-22’s PW100 can reach 7000 hours), while keeping the oxidation weight gain below 0.1 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/ cm² (test standard ASTM G31, exposure time 100 hours).
The YG6 coated blades have a grain size controlled at 0.5-1 μm±0.01 μm (analyzed by X-ray diffraction XRD), a hardness of HV 1800±30 (Vickers hardness test ISO 6507-1, load 30 kg), a life extended to 6000 hours±500 hours, and thermal cracks controlled to less than 0.01 mm±0.001 mm (scanning electron microscope SEM detection, magnification 500x). They show excellent heat resistance (thermal conductivity 80 W/m·K±5 W/ m·K ), structural integrity (tensile strength 1200 MPa±50 MPa), thermal fatigue resistance (resistant to 500 thermal cycles) and oxidation resistance (resistant to oxidation in air at 1200°C). In addition, the high-temperature strength, oxidation resistance and hot corrosion resistance of turbine blades can be enhanced by adding titanium carbide ( TiC , content 2%-5%±0.5%, improving high-temperature hardness by 10%) or tantalum carbide ( TaC , content 1%-3%±0.5%, improving corrosion resistance by 15%), and the creep resistance (creep rate <10 ⁻ ⁵ %/h at 1200°C, test standard ASTM E139) can be further improved through single crystal structure design (directional solidification process, crystal orientation <100>, growth rate 1 mm/min±0.1 mm/min). It is particularly suitable for high-performance jet engines such as turbine components of F-35 fighter jets (thrust 40,000 lbf ), GE GEnx engine of Boeing 787 Dreamliner (thrust-to-weight ratio 9:1) and Rolls-Royce Trent XWB (thrust 84,000 lbf ). Future improvements include optimizing grain distribution using laser deposition manufacturing (LMD) technology and developing new rare earth element doped coatings to further extend the life to 8,000 hours.
The cemented carbide combustion chamber lining
made of tungsten carbide cobalt alloy (WC-Co, Co content 6%-12%±1%, WC particle size 1-3 μm±0.2 μm , density 15.0-15.5 g/cm³ ± 0.1 g/cm³ ) can withstand jet impact up to 3000°C (peak value can reach 3200°C±50°C in scramjet engines, such as X-51A Waverider ), significantly reduce 50% wear rate (<0.05 mm³ / N · m ± 0.01 mm³ / N · m , test standard ASTM G65, grinding wheel wear test), while improving fuel efficiency by about 2% (optimizing combustion chamber geometry through CFD simulation and reducing turbulent loss), excellent anti-oxidation performance, and oxidation weight gain is maintained at <0.1 mg/cm² ± 0.01 mg/cm² ( salt spray test JIS Z 2371, exposure for 96 hours). Its internal structure design adopts multi-layer gradient material (inner layer WC-6%Co, thickness 2 mm±0.2 mm; outer layer WC-12%Co, thickness 3 mm±0.3 mm, transition layer 0.5 mm/layer) to further enhance the thermal barrier effect (thermal resistance increased by 15%, heat flux attenuation by 20%), thermal shock resistance (resistant to 100 rapid temperature rise and fall cycles, -200°C to 1200°C) and thermal fatigue life (life extended to 8000 hours±500 hours, fatigue life>10 ⁶ cycles), and optimize the thermal stress distribution (stress concentration factor <1.5) through micropore design (pore size 10-50 μm , porosity <2%±0.5%, measured by mercury penetration method), and reduce the thermal crack growth rate to <0.001 mm/cycle. Widely used in the engine combustion chamber of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner (GE GEnx-1B), the LEAP-1A engine of the Airbus A350 (thrust 47,000 lbf ), and the F119-PW-100 propulsion system of the military F-22 (thrust-to-weight ratio 10:1), it has significantly extended the maintenance cycle of components (from 5,000 hours to 8,000 hours), and through the introduction of 3D printing technology to manufacture complex geometric structures, it is expected to further optimize thermal efficiency to 3% in the future.
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