Directory
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Concept and Definition of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode
1.2 Development History, Technical Background, and Research Status of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
1.3 The Importance of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes in Modern Industry
Chapter 2 Material Composition and Classification of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
2.1 Basic Characteristics of Tungsten-Based Materials and Limitations of Pure Tungsten Electrodes
2.2 Types and Functions of Rare-Earth Oxides
2.3 Classification Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
2.4 Common Models and Specifications of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
2.5 Analysis of the Influence of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode Material Composition on Performance
2.6 Comparison of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes with Traditional Thorium Tungsten Electrodes
Chapter 3 Preparation and Production Process and Technology of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
3.1 Raw Material Preparation and Ratio
3.2 Detailed Explanation of Powder Metallurgy Process
3.3 Reduction Process
3.4 Forming and Shaping Process
3.5 Sintering Process
3.6 Pressure Processing Technology
3.7 Surface Treatment and Coating Technology
3.8 Control of Key Parameters in the Preparation Process
3.9 Process Optimization and Common Defect Analysis
3.10 Green Preparation Technology
3.11 Large-Scale Production Process Flow Chart
Chapter 4 Physical, Chemical, and Welding Characteristics of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.1 Mechanical Properties of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.2 Thermal Properties of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.3 Electrical Properties of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.4 Chemical Stability and Corrosion Resistance of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.5 Welding Characteristics of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.6 Effects of Rare-Earth Addition on Microstructure
4.7 Comparison of Tungsten Electrode Performance
4.8 Environmental Adaptability of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.9 Analysis of Fatigue and Life Characteristics of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
4.10 Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode MSDS from CTIA GROUP LTD
Chapter 5 Uses and Application Guidelines of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.1 Overview of the Main Uses of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.2 Welding Types Applicable to Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.3 Industry Application Cases of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.4 Recommended Welding Process Parameters of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.5 Precautions for the Use of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.6 Solving Common Problems with Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
5.7 Applications of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes in Emerging Fields
5.8 Economic Benefit Analysis of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
Chapter 6 Production Equipment of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.1 Raw Material Processing Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.2 Reduction and Doping Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.3 Forming Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.4 Sintering Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.5 Processing Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.6 Surface Treatment Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.7 Auxiliary Equipment for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.8 Selection and Maintenance Guidelines for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode Equipment
6.9 Design and Integration of Automatic Production Lines for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
6.10 Safety Equipment and Protective Measures for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
Chapter 7 Domestic and Foreign Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.1 Domestic Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.2 International Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.3 Material Composition Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.4 Performance Test Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.5 Environmental Protection and Safety Standards for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.6 Certification System of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
7.7 Comparison and Applicability Analysis of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode Standards
7.8 Latest Standard Updates for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
Chapter 8 Testing and Quality Inspection of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.1 Performance Test Methods for Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.2 Mechanical Properties Testing of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.3 Microstructure Analysis of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.4 Chemical Composition Detection of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.5 Defect Detection Technology of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.6 Life Evaluation and Reliability Analysis of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
8.7 Key Points of Quality Control of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
Chapter 9 Safety and Environmental Considerations of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
9.1 Operational Safety Specifications
9.2 Health Risks and Protective Measures
9.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
9.4 Recycling and Reuse Technology
9.5 Storage and Transportation Requirements
9.6 Green Manufacturing Principles
9.7 Regulatory Compliance
Chapter 10 Future Development Trends of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrodes
10.1 New Rare-Earth Combination and Doping Technology
10.2 Nano Rare-Earth Oxide Doping and Diffusion Strengthening
10.3 Integration of AI Intelligent Welding Parameter Optimization Technology
10.4 Green Manufacturing and Sustainable Development
10.5 Application Prospects in Aerospace, Nuclear Industry, Medical Manufacturing, and Other Fields
Appendix
Glossary
References
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Concept and definition of composite rare-earth tungsten electrode
Composite rare-earth tungsten electrode is a kind of high-purity tungsten as the matrix, doped with a variety of rare earth oxides (such as lanthanum oxide La₂O₃, cerium oxide CeO₂, yttrium oxide Y₂O₃, zirconia ZrO₂, etc.) advanced electrode materials that optimize performance. Its core lies in the “composite” design, that is, through the synergy of multiple rare earth oxides, the electrode significantly improves the electron emission capacity, arc stability, high temperature resistance and service life of the electrode. Compared with traditional pure tungsten electrodes or single rare earth tungsten electrodes, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes exhibit better comprehensive performance in applications such as welding, cutting, and melting, making them indispensable key materials for modern industry.
From the technical definition, composite rare-earth tungsten electrode refers to a non-melting electrode material prepared by powder metallurgy, chemical doping or solution spraying by doping 1%~4% mass fraction of rare earth oxides in a tungsten matrix. It is mainly used in inert gas shielded welding (TIG welding), plasma welding, cutting, thermal spraying and electric light sources. According to the type and quantity of rare earth oxides, they can be divided into binary composites (such as cerium-lanthanum-tungsten electrodes), ternary composites (such as cerium-lanthanum-yttrium-tungsten electrodes) and multi-composite electrodes. International standards (such as ISO 6848:2015) classify it as a non-melting electrode, and common models include WL series (lanthanum tungsten), WC series (cerium tungsten), WY series (yttrium tungsten), and customized multi-composite models.
The development of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes stems from the limitations of traditional tungsten electrodes. Pure tungsten electrodes have a melting point of up to 3410°C and excellent corrosion resistance, but their electron escape work is high (about 4.5eV), resulting in difficult arcing, unstable arcing, and fast electrode loss. Early thorium tungsten electrodes (containing ThO₂) improved performance by reducing the operating function, but the radioactivity of thorium posed a threat to the environment and operator health. By introducing non-radioactive rare earth oxides, the composite rare-earth tungsten electrode not only retains the high melting point and stability of tungsten, but also significantly reduces the electron escape work (up to 2.0~2.5eV), improves the arc stability (stability index can reach more than 95%), and extends the service life (23 times longer than pure tungsten electrode).
In terms of microstructure, the tungsten matrix of the composite rare-earth tungsten electrode is distributed with fine rare earth oxide particles, which enhance the mechanical strength and toughness of the material by inhibiting grain growth and refining the grain structure. For example, cerium oxide reduces the working function and promotes electron emission; Lanthanum oxide improves arc stability; yttrium oxide enhances high temperature mechanical properties; Zirconia improves antioxidant properties. The synergistic effect of these rare earth elements allows the electrode to remain stable at high current densities (>100A/mm²) by optimizing grain boundary properties, reducing high-temperature volatilization, and inhibiting crack propagation.
In terms of preparation process, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes can be prepared by mechanical mixing or chemical doping. The mechanical mixing method physically mixes tungsten powder with rare earth oxide powder, which is simple but slightly less uniform. Chemical doping methods achieve atomic-level doping through solution spraying or co-precipitation technology for better uniformity. Process selection affects the uniformity of rare earth distribution and the stability of electrode properties, such as chemical doping can control the size of rare earth oxide particles at the nanometer level, significantly improving the durability of the electrode.
The concept of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes also covers its expansion in emerging fields. For example, it is combined with tungsten carbide or tungsten nitride to form composite materials suitable for new energy battery electrodes, or used as catalyst carriers for electrochemical reactions. These expanded applications exemplify its versatility, driving the transition from traditional welding materials to high-tech sectors. Additionally, its eco-friendly properties (non-radioactive, REACH compliant) make it an ideal alternative to thorium tungsten electrodes, meeting the global demand for sustainable materials.
In terms of performance indicators, the typical specifications of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes include a diameter of 1.0~10.0mm, a length of 150~175mm, and the surface can be polished, oxidized or coated. Its key parameters include: electron escape power < 2.5eV, arc stability > 95%, arc life of 500~1000 hours (depending on process conditions). These characteristics make it widely used in high-precision welding, aerospace, and new energy fields.
1.2 Development history, technical background and research status of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes
The development process of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes is closely related to the evolution of welding technology, material science and environmental protection requirements. In the early 20th century, tungsten was used as an electrode material due to its high melting point and chemical stability, but the inadequate performance of pure tungsten electrodes limited their application. In 1913, thorium tungsten electrode (containing 1%~2% ThO₂) was introduced, which significantly improved the arcing performance by reducing the working function and was widely used in TIG welding. However, the radioactivity of thorium has gradually attracted attention, especially in the context of increasingly stringent environmental regulations.
In 1973, Wang Juzhen’s team at the Shanghai Bulb Factory in China successfully developed a cerium tungsten electrode (containing CeO₂), which was a pioneering breakthrough in rare earth tungsten electrodes. Cerium-tungsten electrodes quickly replaced some thorium-tungsten electrode applications with non-radioactivity, low operating function (approx. 2.7eV) and excellent arc stability, and were included in the ISO 6848 standard. In the 80s of the 20th century, with the advancement of powder metallurgy technology, binary composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes (such as cerium-lanthanum combinations) began to appear. Beijing Tungsten Molybdenum Material Factory and other institutions have achieved uniform distribution of rare earth elements and improved the comprehensive performance of electrodes by optimizing the doping process.
In the 90s, the development of ternary composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes (such as cerium, lanthanum, lanthanum and yttrium combinations) became a hot topic. The technical background includes the wide application of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to help reveal the microscopic distribution of rare earth oxides in tungsten substrates. For example, studies have shown that rare earth oxide particles can form a stable second phase, inhibit the coarsening of tungsten grains at high temperatures, and extend electrode life. During the same period, the “multi-composite rare-earth tungsten electrode Industrialization Technology” project supported by China’s 863 plan promoted large-scale production, covering hydrogen reduction, cold isostatic pressing and vacuum sintering.
In the 21st century, the application fields of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes have expanded from traditional welding to plasma cutting, thermal spraying and new energy batteries. After 2000, the global demand for green materials drove the popularity of radioactive electrodes. The technical background includes the introduction of nanotechnology, the use of rare earth nanopowders to improve the doping uniformity, and the particle size is controlled in the range of 50~100nm. In addition, automated production equipment (e.g., spray-doped dryers, medium-frequency induction sintering furnaces) significantly improve yield and consistency.
In the 2010s, research focused on performance optimization and defect control. For example, the sintering stratification mechanism revealed the influence of temperature gradient on the distribution of rare earths, and optimized the sintering parameters (1450~1800°C, vacuum <10⁻³Pa). International standards such as AWS A5.12/A5.12M further regulate the composition, performance testing and quality control requirements of electrodes. During the same period, the stability of the rare earth supply chain became a concern, and the Global Critical Minerals Outlook report highlighted the strategic importance of rare earth resources.
As of 2025, the research status of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes shows a multidisciplinary trend. Hotspots include:
Emerging Applications: In lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, and photovoltaic equipment, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes are used as cathodes or conductive coating materials to improve energy density and cycle life.
Green Manufacturing: The process of extracting rare earths from coal waste reduces reliance on virgin minerals, aligning with the concept of a circular economy.
Intelligent Production: AI-assisted process optimization and 3D printing technology are used for customized electrode production, improving the manufacturing accuracy of complex structures.
Performance Testing: Arc life test (> 1000 hours), accelerated aging experiment, and microstructure analysis (SEM/TEM) provide reliable data for performance evaluation.
Challenges include scarcity of rare earth resources, high processing costs, and international trade barriers, but opportunities lie in policy support (e.g., China’s rare earth management regulations) and growing market demand. According to the global market forecast, the annual consumption of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes has exceeded 1,600 tons, and the average annual growth rate is expected to reach 5.8% in 2025~2030.
1.3 The importance of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes in modern industry
The importance of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes in modern industry stems from their excellent performance, multi-field applications, and contribution to green manufacturing. As a green alternative to thorium tungsten electrodes, it eliminates radioactive risks and complies with global environmental regulations (e.g., REACH, RoHS), promoting sustainability in the welding industry.
In the field of welding, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes are the core materials of TIG welding and plasma welding. Its low operating function and high arc stability (>95%) ensure high-quality welds and are widely used in aerospace (titanium and stainless steel welding), automotive manufacturing (aluminum alloy lightweight welding) and nuclear power (reactor pipeline welding). For example, in the aviation sector, electrodes support defect-free welding of complex components, meeting stringent safety standards; In the automotive industry, it helps the precision welding of electric vehicle battery components to improve production efficiency.
In the field of new energy, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes are used as electrode materials or conductive coatings for lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells and photovoltaic equipment. For example, in lithium battery production, its high conductivity and corrosion resistance improve the cycle life of electrodes (>5000 cycles). In the photovoltaic industry, plasma electrodes for silicon wafer cutting improve cutting accuracy and durability.
In the electronics industry, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes are used in cathodes and filaments in semiconductor devices, providing stable electron emission and supporting the high-precision requirements of chip manufacturing. In addition, in the field of thermal spraying, its high temperature resistance (>3000°C) and oxidation resistance are used to spray wear-resistant coatings and extend the life of mechanical components.
In the military and medical fields, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes support high-precision welding, such as the manufacture of armor-piercing shells and medical implants. Its high melting point and chemical stability ensure reliability under extreme conditions.
In terms of economic benefits, composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes significantly save production costs by extending the life (500~1000 hours) and reducing maintenance costs. For example, in TIG welding, the arc burning time is more than 2 times longer than that of pure tungsten electrodes, reducing the frequency of replacement. Global market analysis shows that its demand in high-end manufacturing has driven market growth at an average annual rate of more than 5%.
Strategically, the scarcity of rare earth resources and the irreplaceability of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes make them key materials and attract policy attention. The EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act and China’s Rare Earth Management Regulations emphasize the safeguarding of rare earth supply chains, promoting the research and development of recycling technologies and alternative processes. By 2025, the market size of composite rare-earth tungsten electrodes is expected to exceed $1 billion, becoming an important pillar supporting the high-tech industry.
READ MORE: Encyclopedia of Composite Rare-Earth Tungsten Electrode
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